The last week of May marks the anniversary of the first meeting of the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. The convention was called to address problems with the Articles of Confederation, which had been drafted in 1777 in order to provide a system for a national government. By 1779, the Articles had been ratified by all the colonies except Maryland. Maryland had initially refused to ratify the Articles due to a dispute between the various colonies about claims to the lands west of the colonies. In 1781, Maryland was finally persuaded to ratify the Articles which then served as the basis for a federal government until 1789.
First Day Of School 2 Candid-hdl
Salk was immediately hailed as a "miracle worker" when the vaccine's success was first made public in April 1955, and chose to not patent the vaccine or seek any profit from it in order to maximize its global distribution.[2] The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis and the University of Pittsburgh looked into patenting the vaccine but, since Salk's techniques were not novel, their patent attorney said "If there were any patentable novelty to be found in this phase it would lie within an extremely narrow scope and would be of doubtful value."[3][4] An immediate rush to vaccinate began in both the United States and around the world. Many countries began polio immunization campaigns using Salk's vaccine, including Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium. By 1959, the Salk vaccine had reached about 90 countries.[5] An attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin, coming into commercial use in 1961. Less than 25 years after the release of Salk's vaccine, domestic transmission of polio had been eliminated in the United States.
Salk has said: "My intention was to go to medical school, and then become a medical scientist. I did not intend to practice medicine, although in medical school, and in my internship, I did all the things that were necessary to qualify me in that regard. I had opportunities along the way to drop the idea of medicine and go into science. At one point at the end of my first year of medical school, I received an opportunity to spend a year in research and teaching in biochemistry, which I did. And at the end of that year, I was told that I could, if I wished, switch and get a Ph.D. in biochemistry, but my preference was to stay with medicine. And, I believe that this is all linked to my original ambition, or desire, which was to be of some help to humankind, so to speak, in a larger sense than just on a one-to-one basis."[19]
Concerning his last year of medical school, Salk said: "I had an opportunity to spend time in elective periods in my last year in medical school, in a laboratory that was involved in studies on influenza. The influenza virus had just been discovered about a few years before that. And, I saw the opportunity at that time to test the question as to whether we could destroy the virus infectivity and still immunize. And so, by carefully designed experiments, we found it was possible to do so."[20]
In 1947, Salk became ambitious for his own lab and was granted one at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, but the lab was smaller than he had hoped and he found the rules imposed by the university restrictive.[21]In 1948, Harry Weaver, the director of research at the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, contacted Salk. He asked Salk to find out if there were more types of polio than the three then known, offering additional space, equipment and researchers. For the first year he gathered supplies and researchers including Julius Youngner, Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, and secretary Lorraine Friedman joined Salk's team, as well.[22][23] As time went on, Salk began securing grants from the Mellon family and was able to build a working virology laboratory.[15] He later joined the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis's polio project established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.[15][24]
In 1966, The New York Times referred to him as the "Father of Biophilosophy." According to Times journalist and author Howard Taubman, "he never forgets ... there is a vast amount of darkness for man to penetrate. As a biologist, he believes that his science is on the frontier of tremendous new discoveries; and as a philosopher, he is convinced that humanists and artists have joined the scientists to achieve an understanding of man in all his physical, mental and spiritual complexity. Such interchanges might lead, he would hope, to a new and important school of thinkers he would designate as biophilosophers."[49] Salk told his cousin, Joel Kassiday, at a meeting of the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future on Capitol Hill in 1984 that he was optimistic that ways to prevent most human and animal diseases would eventually be developed. Salk said people must be prepared to take prudent risks, since "a risk-free society would become a dead-end society" without progress.
From the early 1930s through the 1960s, Toni Frissell's photographs appeared in some of America's top magazines--Harper's Bazaar, Vogue, Town and Country, Sports Illustrated, and Life--providing images of fashion, celebrities, sports, and lifestyles of the wealthy. She began photographing fashion using her own aristocratic friends as models. During World War II she broadened her range, by documenting women's contributions to the war both at home and on the battlefront. After the war, she became the first female staff photographer for Time Inc.'s, new magazine, Sports Illustrated while continuing to work freelance. Frissell proposed and shot her own stories for leading magazines, photo-illustrated three books for children, and enjoyed one-person shows in the U.S. and Europe. One theme running throughout her long career is the way she depicted women. In an interview for the 1979 book, Recollections, Frissell recalled, "I have always admired strong women, women of adventurous mind, women active in doing original things. When I was young, an early woman leader in Congress, Isabella Greenway, took me to Paris with her daughter. I admire the grand ladies I've known, but I think of myself as a sportswoman. Being a woman shouldn't interfere with the job." (1)
New York's place at the center of magazine publishing in the United States proved crucial to Frissell's career. Throughout the 1920s and '30s, a technical revolution in presses, inks, and paper contributed to significant changes in magazine design, first evident in Europe, especially France, Germany and Russia.(17) Publishers like Henry Luce at Time Inc. and editors like Carmel Snow at Vogue sought to lure European talent to New York. By the middle of the 1930s, the rise of fascism caused numerous professionals, including magazine editors, designers, and photographers, to become refugees, and many landed in New York. Immigrant Dr. Mehemed Fehmy Agha became the designer who shaped Conde Nast magazines Vogue, Vanity Fair, and House and Garden (1929-1943).(18) Russian aristocrat Alexey Brodovitch taught art and design in Philadelphia before he became art director of fashion magazine Harper's Bazaar (1934-1958), and Carmel Snow encouraged him to hire former German sports photographer Martin Munkacsi to photograph sportswear.(19) At Vogue, in 1931, the German fashion photographer Horst P. Horst brought his own austere approach to working in the studio, creating dynamic illusions with lights that mimicked the out-of-doors.(20) Frissell responded quickly to this stimulating environment.
Frissell learned to shoot fashion photographs from an angle, generally from the left corner looking diagonally across the picture plane but sometimes from the top right down to bottom left, for dramatic presentation. She also liked to give the impression of stop-action movement.(21) A natural athlete herself, she did not hesitate to do whatever was necessary to get a good angle for her photos. As a mark of her success, Frissell was put on contract in 1933 and had her first Vogue cover photograph on June 1, 1937.(22) She climbed high on the observation deck at the recently completed Rockefeller Center to show her models "rising above the heat of the summer."(23) For a shoot about water sports in Hawaii, she climbed to the top of a catamaran in 1938 and got a Vogue cover for her efforts.(24) She requested a substantial raise, from $2,400 to $3,600 per year but Vogue's art director Kahn objected, not liking her or her senior colleague Cecil Beaton, but Frissell stayed on.(25)
Frissell's natural athleticism, charm, and innate artistic talent emerged under extraordinary circumstances that enabled her to establish a career at a time when few women operated in the magazine photography world. Her family connections set her apart from most Americans. She may also have felt driven to succeed because her brothers had not lived to fulfill their expectations and dreams. But surely she also felt motivated by the examples of her ancestors, great-grandmother Mary Whitney Phelps and her grandmother Mary Ann "Mollie" Phelps. After Union General Nathaniel Lyon was killed at the Battle of Wilson's Creek in Missouri in August 1861, great-grandmother Mary and grandmother "Mollie" took Lyon's body to their home for burial until his family could reclaim it. For her courtesy, Congress rewarded Phelps with $20,000 that she used to start an orphanage and Abraham Lincoln made her a dispenser of benefits to those orphaned by the Civil War.(26) Frissell's great-grandfather John Smith Phelps served as governor of Missouri 1877 to 1881 and Mary served as first lady. After Mary's early death in 1878, her daughter, now "Mollie" Phelps Montgomery, assisted her widowed father.(27) Mollie, married to newspaper publisher and transportation developer James Boyce Montgomery, held many prominent roles in civic organizations in Oregon where they settled. She also accompanied American soldiers to Europe during World War I to do volunteer work.(28) These grandmothers left a legacy of social leadership and service. In Frissell's experience, women engaged in public activities was not confined to the past. Her family knew Isabella Selmes Greenway, the first U.S. congresswoman in Arizona history, and Toni joined Greenway on a trip to Paris as a companion for her daughter.(29) 2ff7e9595c
Comments